An Animal Model of Human Gambling

An Animal Model of Human Gambling

Guardado en:

International Journal of Psychological Research

2011-2084

2011-7922

Zentall, Thomas R.

UNIVERSIDAD DE SAN BUENAVENTURA

10.21500/20112084.2284

9

2016-07-01

96

112

Colombia

http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2

info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess

International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016

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An Animal Model of Human Gambling
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MacLin, O. H., Dixon, M. R., Daugherty, D., & Small, S. L. (2007). Using a computer simulation of three slot gambling machines to investigate a gambler’s preference among varying densities of near-miss alternatives. Behavioral Research Methods, 39, 237-241.
Potenza M.N., 2008. The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: B, 363, 3181-3189
Perry J.L., Carroll M.E. 2008. The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology, 200, 1-26
Pattison, K. F., Laude, J. R., & Zentall, T. R. (2013). Social enrichment affects suboptimal, risky, gambling-like choice by pigeons. Animal Cognition, 16, 429-434.
Nower, L. & Blaszczynski, A., 2006. Impulsivity and Pathological Gambling: A Descriptive Model. International Gambling Studies, 6, 61-75.
Molet, M., Miller, H.C., Laude, J.R., Kirk, C., Manning, B., Zentall, T.R., 2012. Decision-making by humans as assessed by a choice task: Do humans, like pigeons, show suboptimal choice? Learning & Behavior, 40, 439-447.
Michalczuk, R., Bowden-Jones, H., Verdejo-Garcia, A. Clark, L., 2011. Impulsivity and cognitive distortions in pathological gamblers attending the UK National Problem Gambling Clinic: a preliminary report. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2625-2635.
McDevitt, M. A., Spetch, M. L., & Dunn, R. (1997). Contiguity and conditioned reinforcement in probabilistic choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68, 317–327.
McDevitt, M. A., Dunn, R. M., Spetch, M. L., & Ludvig, E. A. (2016). When good news leads to bad choices. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 105, 23-40.
Mazur, J.E. 1996. Choice with certain and uncertain reinforcers in an adjusting delay procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 66, 63-73.
Lyk-Jensen, S.V., 2010. New evidence from the grey area: Danish results for at-risk gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26, 455-467.
Rachlin, H, Green, L., 1972. Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 17, 15–22.
Laude, J.R., Stagner, J.P., & Zentall, T.R. 2014. Suboptimal choice by pigeons may result from the diminishing effect of nonreinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 40, 12-21.
Laude, J.R., Pattison, K.F., & Zentall, T.R., 2012. Hungry pigeons make suboptimal choices, less hungry pigeons do not. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 884–891.
Laude, J.R., Beckmann, J.S., Daniels, C.W., Zentall, T.R., (2014). Impulsivity affects suboptimal gambling-like choice by pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.
Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311-328.
Kendall, S. B. (1985). A further study of choice and percentage reinforcement. Behavioural Processes, 10, 399–413.
Kendall, S. B. (1974). Preference for intermittent reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21, 463–473.
Kahneman, D., Tversky, A., 1979. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
Jones G.H., Marsden C.A., Robbins T.W., 1990 Increased sensitivity to amphetamine and reward-related stimuli following social isolation in rats: possible disruption of dopamine-dependent mechanisms of the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology, 3, 364-372.
Hursh S.R., Fantino E., 1974 An appraisal of preference for multiple versus mixed schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 22, 31-38.
Holst R. J., van den Brink W., Veltman D.J., Goudriaan A.E., 2010. Why gamblers fail to win: A review of cognitive and neuroimaging findings in pathological gambling. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 87–107.
Pyke, G.H., Pulliam, H. R., & Charnov, E. L. (1977). Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 52, 137–154.
Roberts, W. A., 1972. Short-term memory in the pigeon: Effects of repetition and spacing. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 94, 74-83.
info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess
Tversky, A., Kahneman, D., (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124–1131.
http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85
info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion
http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501
info:eu-repo/semantics/article
Zentall, T. R., & Stagner, J. (2011b). Sub-optimal choice by pigeons: Failure to support the Allais paradox. Learning and Motivation, 42, 245–254.
Zentall, T. R., & Stagner, J. (2011a). Maladaptive choice behavior by pigeons: An animal analogue and possible mechanism for gambling (sub-optimal human decision-making behavior). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278, 1203–1208.
Text
Worthington, A. C., 2001. Implicit Finance in Gambling Expenditures: Australian Evidence on Socioeconomic and Demographic Tax. Public Finance Review, 29, 326-342.
Vasconcelos, M., Monteiro, T., & Kacelnik, A. (2015). Irrational choice and the value of information. Scientific Reports, 5, 13874.
Stephens, D.W. Krebs, J.R. (1986). Foraging theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Griffiths, M. (1999). Gambling technologies: Prospects for problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 15, 265-283.
Steel Z., Blaszczynski A., 1998. Impulsivity, personality disorders and pathological gambling severity. Addiction, 93, 895-905.
Stagner, J.P. Zentall, T.R., 2010. Suboptimal choice behavior by pigeons. Psychological Bulletin & Review, 17, 412-416.
Stagner, J.P., Laude, J.R., Zentall, T.R., 2012. Pigeons prefer discriminative stimuli independently of the overall probability of reinforcement and of the number of presentations of the conditioned reinforcer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 38, 446–452.
Stagner, J.P., Laude, J.R., & Zentall, T.R., 2011. Sub-optimal choice in pigeons does not depend on avoidance of the stimulus associated with the absence of reinforcement. Learning and Motivation, 42, 282-287.
Stairs D.J., Bardo M.T., 2009. Neurobehavioral effects of environmental enrichment and drug abuse vulnerability. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 92, 377-382
Spetch, M.L., Mondloch, M.V., Belke, T.W., Dunn, R., 1994. Determinants of pigeons’ choice between certain and probabilistic outcomes. Animal Learning & Behavior 22, 239–251.
Spetch, M.L., Belke, T.W., Barnet, R.C., Dunn, R., Pierce, W.D. 1990. Suboptimal choice in a percentage-reinforcement procedure: Effects of signal condition and terminal link length. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 219-234.
Smith, A. P., & Zentall, T. R. (in press). Suboptimal choice in pigeons: Choice is primarily based on the value of the conditioned reinforcer rather than overall reinforcement rate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.
Smith, A. P., Bailey, A. R., Chow, J. J., Beckmann, J. S., & Zentall, T. R. (submitted). Suboptimal choice in pigeons: Stimulus value predicts choice over frequencies.
Shafir, S., Reich, T., Tsur, E., Erev, I., & Lotem, A., 2008. Perceptual accuracy and conflicting effects of certainty on risk-taking behaviour. Nature, 453, 917-921.
Roper, K.L., Zentall, T.R., 1999. Observing behavior in pigeons: The effect of reinforcement probability and response cost using a symmetrical choice procedure. Learning and Motivation, 30, 201-220.
Hearst, E., Besley, S., Farthing, G.W., 1970. Inhibition and the stimulus control of operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 14, 373–409.
Gipson, C. D., Alessandri, J.D., Miller, H.C., Zentall, T.R., 2009. Preference for 50% reinforcement over 75% reinforcement by pigeons. Learning & Behavior, 37, 289-298.
application/pdf
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/view/2284
Franken I. H. A., Stam C., Hendriks V. M., van den Brink, W., 2003. Neuropsychological evidence for abnormal cognitive processing of drug cues in heroin dependence. Psychopharmacology, 170, 205–212.
International Journal of Psychological Research
Universidad San Buenaventura - USB (Colombia)
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Journal article
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Núm. 2 , Año 2016 : Special Issue of Comparative Psychology
2
9
suboptimal choice
pigeons
gambling
suboptimal choice
Zentall, Thomas R.
Human gambling generally involves taking a risk on a low probability high outcome alternative over the more economically optimal high probability low outcome alternative (not gambling). Surprisingly, although optimal foraging theory suggests that animals should be sensitive to the overall probability of reinforcement, the results of many experiments suggest otherwise. For example, they do not prefer an alternative that 100% of the time provides them with a stimulus that always predicts reinforcement over an alternative that provides them with a stimulus that predicts reinforcement 50% of the time. This line of research leads to the conclusion that preference depends on the predictive value of the stimulus that follows and surprisingly, not on its frequency. A similar mechanism likely accounts for the suboptimal choice that humans have to engage in commercial gambling.
Inglés
Publication
International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016
Crockford. D.N., Goodyear. B., Edwards. J., Quickfall. J., el-Guebaly. N., 2005. Cue-induced brain activity in pathological gamblers. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 787–795.
Fantino, E., 1967. Preference for mixed- versus fixed-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 10, 35-43.
Dunn, R., & Spetch, M. L. (1990). Choice with uncertain outcomes: Conditioned reinforcement effects. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 201–218.
DSM-IV-TR American Psychiatric Association, (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Fantino, E., 1969. Choice and rate of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 723–730.
Fantino, E., Abarca, N., 1985. Choice, optimal foraging, and the delay-reduction hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Science, 8, 315–330.
Fantino, E., Case, D.A. 1983. Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 40, 193–210.
Dinsmoor, J.A., 1985. The role of observing and attention in establishing stimulus control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 43, 365-381.
Dinsmoor, J.A., 1983. Observing and conditioned reinforcement. Behavioral and Brain Science, 6, 693–728.
Brunborg, G.S., Johnsen, B.J., Pallesen, S., Molde, H., Mentzoni, R.A., & Myrseth, H., 2010. The relationship between aversive conditioning and risk-avoidance in gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26, 545-559.
Breen, R.B., Zuckerman, M., 1999. 'Chasing' in gambling behavior: Personality and cognitive determinants. Personality & Individual Differences, 27, 1097-1111.
Belke, T.W., Spetch, M. L., 1994. Choice between reliable and unreliable reinforcement alternatives revisited: Preference for unreliable reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 62, 353-366.
Allais, M., 1953. Le comportement de l’homme rationnel devant le risque: critique des postulats et axiomes de l’école Américaine, Econometrica, 21, 503-546.
Fantino, E., Dunn, R., Meck, W., 1979. Percentage reinforcement and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 32, 335-340.
References
Fantino, E., Preston, R. A., & Dunn, R. (1993). Delay reduction: Current status. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 159–169.
Fantino, E., Silberberg, A., 2010. Revisiting the role of bad news in maintaining human observing behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 93, 157-170.
Field, M., & Cox, W. M., 2008. Attentional bias in addictive behaviors: A review of its development, causes, and consequences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97, 1–20.
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2284/3042
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2284/3043
2016-07-01T00:00:00Z
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2284/3041
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2284/3040
https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2284/2367
96
2016-07-01T00:00:00Z
2016-07-01
2011-2084
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10.21500/20112084.2284
https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2284
2011-7922
institution UNIVERSIDAD DE SAN BUENAVENTURA
thumbnail https://nuevo.metarevistas.org/UNIVERSIDADDESANBUENAVENTURA_COLOMBIA/logo.png
country_str Colombia
collection International Journal of Psychological Research
title An Animal Model of Human Gambling
spellingShingle An Animal Model of Human Gambling
Zentall, Thomas R.
suboptimal choice
pigeons
gambling
suboptimal choice
title_short An Animal Model of Human Gambling
title_full An Animal Model of Human Gambling
title_fullStr An Animal Model of Human Gambling
title_full_unstemmed An Animal Model of Human Gambling
title_sort animal model of human gambling
description_eng Human gambling generally involves taking a risk on a low probability high outcome alternative over the more economically optimal high probability low outcome alternative (not gambling). Surprisingly, although optimal foraging theory suggests that animals should be sensitive to the overall probability of reinforcement, the results of many experiments suggest otherwise. For example, they do not prefer an alternative that 100% of the time provides them with a stimulus that always predicts reinforcement over an alternative that provides them with a stimulus that predicts reinforcement 50% of the time. This line of research leads to the conclusion that preference depends on the predictive value of the stimulus that follows and surprisingly, not on its frequency. A similar mechanism likely accounts for the suboptimal choice that humans have to engage in commercial gambling.
author Zentall, Thomas R.
author_facet Zentall, Thomas R.
topic suboptimal choice
pigeons
gambling
suboptimal choice
topic_facet suboptimal choice
pigeons
gambling
suboptimal choice
citationvolume 9
citationissue 2
citationedition Núm. 2 , Año 2016 : Special Issue of Comparative Psychology
publisher Universidad San Buenaventura - USB (Colombia)
ispartofjournal International Journal of Psychological Research
source https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/view/2284
language Inglés
format Article
rights http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2
info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016
references_eng MacLin, O. H., Dixon, M. R., Daugherty, D., & Small, S. L. (2007). Using a computer simulation of three slot gambling machines to investigate a gambler’s preference among varying densities of near-miss alternatives. Behavioral Research Methods, 39, 237-241.
Potenza M.N., 2008. The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: B, 363, 3181-3189
Perry J.L., Carroll M.E. 2008. The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology, 200, 1-26
Pattison, K. F., Laude, J. R., & Zentall, T. R. (2013). Social enrichment affects suboptimal, risky, gambling-like choice by pigeons. Animal Cognition, 16, 429-434.
Nower, L. & Blaszczynski, A., 2006. Impulsivity and Pathological Gambling: A Descriptive Model. International Gambling Studies, 6, 61-75.
Molet, M., Miller, H.C., Laude, J.R., Kirk, C., Manning, B., Zentall, T.R., 2012. Decision-making by humans as assessed by a choice task: Do humans, like pigeons, show suboptimal choice? Learning & Behavior, 40, 439-447.
Michalczuk, R., Bowden-Jones, H., Verdejo-Garcia, A. Clark, L., 2011. Impulsivity and cognitive distortions in pathological gamblers attending the UK National Problem Gambling Clinic: a preliminary report. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2625-2635.
McDevitt, M. A., Spetch, M. L., & Dunn, R. (1997). Contiguity and conditioned reinforcement in probabilistic choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68, 317–327.
McDevitt, M. A., Dunn, R. M., Spetch, M. L., & Ludvig, E. A. (2016). When good news leads to bad choices. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 105, 23-40.
Mazur, J.E. 1996. Choice with certain and uncertain reinforcers in an adjusting delay procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 66, 63-73.
Lyk-Jensen, S.V., 2010. New evidence from the grey area: Danish results for at-risk gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26, 455-467.
Rachlin, H, Green, L., 1972. Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 17, 15–22.
Laude, J.R., Stagner, J.P., & Zentall, T.R. 2014. Suboptimal choice by pigeons may result from the diminishing effect of nonreinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 40, 12-21.
Laude, J.R., Pattison, K.F., & Zentall, T.R., 2012. Hungry pigeons make suboptimal choices, less hungry pigeons do not. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 884–891.
Laude, J.R., Beckmann, J.S., Daniels, C.W., Zentall, T.R., (2014). Impulsivity affects suboptimal gambling-like choice by pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.
Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311-328.
Kendall, S. B. (1985). A further study of choice and percentage reinforcement. Behavioural Processes, 10, 399–413.
Kendall, S. B. (1974). Preference for intermittent reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21, 463–473.
Kahneman, D., Tversky, A., 1979. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
Jones G.H., Marsden C.A., Robbins T.W., 1990 Increased sensitivity to amphetamine and reward-related stimuli following social isolation in rats: possible disruption of dopamine-dependent mechanisms of the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology, 3, 364-372.
Hursh S.R., Fantino E., 1974 An appraisal of preference for multiple versus mixed schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 22, 31-38.
Holst R. J., van den Brink W., Veltman D.J., Goudriaan A.E., 2010. Why gamblers fail to win: A review of cognitive and neuroimaging findings in pathological gambling. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 87–107.
Pyke, G.H., Pulliam, H. R., & Charnov, E. L. (1977). Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 52, 137–154.
Roberts, W. A., 1972. Short-term memory in the pigeon: Effects of repetition and spacing. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 94, 74-83.
Tversky, A., Kahneman, D., (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124–1131.
Zentall, T. R., & Stagner, J. (2011b). Sub-optimal choice by pigeons: Failure to support the Allais paradox. Learning and Motivation, 42, 245–254.
Zentall, T. R., & Stagner, J. (2011a). Maladaptive choice behavior by pigeons: An animal analogue and possible mechanism for gambling (sub-optimal human decision-making behavior). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278, 1203–1208.
Worthington, A. C., 2001. Implicit Finance in Gambling Expenditures: Australian Evidence on Socioeconomic and Demographic Tax. Public Finance Review, 29, 326-342.
Vasconcelos, M., Monteiro, T., & Kacelnik, A. (2015). Irrational choice and the value of information. Scientific Reports, 5, 13874.
Stephens, D.W. Krebs, J.R. (1986). Foraging theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Griffiths, M. (1999). Gambling technologies: Prospects for problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 15, 265-283.
Steel Z., Blaszczynski A., 1998. Impulsivity, personality disorders and pathological gambling severity. Addiction, 93, 895-905.
Stagner, J.P. Zentall, T.R., 2010. Suboptimal choice behavior by pigeons. Psychological Bulletin & Review, 17, 412-416.
Stagner, J.P., Laude, J.R., Zentall, T.R., 2012. Pigeons prefer discriminative stimuli independently of the overall probability of reinforcement and of the number of presentations of the conditioned reinforcer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 38, 446–452.
Stagner, J.P., Laude, J.R., & Zentall, T.R., 2011. Sub-optimal choice in pigeons does not depend on avoidance of the stimulus associated with the absence of reinforcement. Learning and Motivation, 42, 282-287.
Stairs D.J., Bardo M.T., 2009. Neurobehavioral effects of environmental enrichment and drug abuse vulnerability. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 92, 377-382
Spetch, M.L., Mondloch, M.V., Belke, T.W., Dunn, R., 1994. Determinants of pigeons’ choice between certain and probabilistic outcomes. Animal Learning & Behavior 22, 239–251.
Spetch, M.L., Belke, T.W., Barnet, R.C., Dunn, R., Pierce, W.D. 1990. Suboptimal choice in a percentage-reinforcement procedure: Effects of signal condition and terminal link length. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 219-234.
Smith, A. P., & Zentall, T. R. (in press). Suboptimal choice in pigeons: Choice is primarily based on the value of the conditioned reinforcer rather than overall reinforcement rate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.
Smith, A. P., Bailey, A. R., Chow, J. J., Beckmann, J. S., & Zentall, T. R. (submitted). Suboptimal choice in pigeons: Stimulus value predicts choice over frequencies.
Shafir, S., Reich, T., Tsur, E., Erev, I., & Lotem, A., 2008. Perceptual accuracy and conflicting effects of certainty on risk-taking behaviour. Nature, 453, 917-921.
Roper, K.L., Zentall, T.R., 1999. Observing behavior in pigeons: The effect of reinforcement probability and response cost using a symmetrical choice procedure. Learning and Motivation, 30, 201-220.
Hearst, E., Besley, S., Farthing, G.W., 1970. Inhibition and the stimulus control of operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 14, 373–409.
Gipson, C. D., Alessandri, J.D., Miller, H.C., Zentall, T.R., 2009. Preference for 50% reinforcement over 75% reinforcement by pigeons. Learning & Behavior, 37, 289-298.
Franken I. H. A., Stam C., Hendriks V. M., van den Brink, W., 2003. Neuropsychological evidence for abnormal cognitive processing of drug cues in heroin dependence. Psychopharmacology, 170, 205–212.
Crockford. D.N., Goodyear. B., Edwards. J., Quickfall. J., el-Guebaly. N., 2005. Cue-induced brain activity in pathological gamblers. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 787–795.
Fantino, E., 1967. Preference for mixed- versus fixed-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 10, 35-43.
Dunn, R., & Spetch, M. L. (1990). Choice with uncertain outcomes: Conditioned reinforcement effects. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 201–218.
DSM-IV-TR American Psychiatric Association, (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Fantino, E., 1969. Choice and rate of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 723–730.
Fantino, E., Abarca, N., 1985. Choice, optimal foraging, and the delay-reduction hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Science, 8, 315–330.
Fantino, E., Case, D.A. 1983. Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 40, 193–210.
Dinsmoor, J.A., 1985. The role of observing and attention in establishing stimulus control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 43, 365-381.
Dinsmoor, J.A., 1983. Observing and conditioned reinforcement. Behavioral and Brain Science, 6, 693–728.
Brunborg, G.S., Johnsen, B.J., Pallesen, S., Molde, H., Mentzoni, R.A., & Myrseth, H., 2010. The relationship between aversive conditioning and risk-avoidance in gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26, 545-559.
Breen, R.B., Zuckerman, M., 1999. 'Chasing' in gambling behavior: Personality and cognitive determinants. Personality & Individual Differences, 27, 1097-1111.
Belke, T.W., Spetch, M. L., 1994. Choice between reliable and unreliable reinforcement alternatives revisited: Preference for unreliable reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 62, 353-366.
Allais, M., 1953. Le comportement de l’homme rationnel devant le risque: critique des postulats et axiomes de l’école Américaine, Econometrica, 21, 503-546.
Fantino, E., Dunn, R., Meck, W., 1979. Percentage reinforcement and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 32, 335-340.
References
Fantino, E., Preston, R. A., & Dunn, R. (1993). Delay reduction: Current status. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 159–169.
Fantino, E., Silberberg, A., 2010. Revisiting the role of bad news in maintaining human observing behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 93, 157-170.
Field, M., & Cox, W. M., 2008. Attentional bias in addictive behaviors: A review of its development, causes, and consequences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97, 1–20.
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